radiogenic heat
In order to estimate the generation of heat due to the decay of radioactive elements, it is necessary to know their distribution in the Earth. Such information is currently not available. When assessing, the matter of the Earth is usually identified with the matter of meteorites (considering the latter as the original, protoplanetary matter). The mantle of the Earth is credited with the release of radiogenic heat, characteristic of chondrites; core - characteristic of iron meteorites.
Modern heat generation within the framework of such a model is estimated in terms of Wc = 2.3 • 102 cal/year ~ 1021 J/year.
This heat provides flow
which agrees well with the modern heat flux of the Earth. Thus, according to these estimates, the current radiogenic heat generation covers the current heat losses from the Earth's surface.
In the past, radiogenic heat generation was higher, since the concentration of radioactive elements varies according to the law
where WQ — heat generation at the beginning of the Earth's history; A-1 ~ 2.6 Ga.
WQ can be calculated as WQ = WT e, where m = 4.6 billion years is the age of the Earth. Based on the half-lives of the main elements, it can be estimated that WQ = (5—6) Wc.
The following estimates of heat release for meteorites are usually used:
- • chondrites R ~ 4 1 (G15 cal / cm3 • s \u003d 1.7 • 1 (G8 W / m3.
- • iron meteorites R ~ 3 • 1 (Г18 cal/cm3 • s ~ 1.3 • 1 (Г8 W/m3. The main long-lived radioactive sources are uranium, potassium and thorium. Data on the heat release of uranium U and potassium K are presented in Tables 1.1 and 6.3. For Th half-life - 13.9 billion years, heat generation - 2.7 • KG5 W / kg.
The total heat generation in the entire history of the Earth is
According to equation (6.9), this energy could heat the Earth to a temperature AT~ 1700°C.
Some researchers believe (for example, Bolt, 1984) that it is also necessary to take into account the contribution of short-lived radioactive elements, which can be quite significant and give additional heating by several hundred degrees. Data on the half-life of some short-lived elements are given in Table. 6.5.
The described method of radiogenic heat is an estimate. The question of how reasonable it can be considered that modern meteorites that arose in the belt between Mars and Jupiter and have gone through a long and difficult path of development correctly reflect the content of radioactive elements in the Earth's shells remains
Half-life of some short-lived elements
|
Element |
Half life T{/2, billion years |
|
A126 |
0,73 |
|
C136 |
0,3 |
|
Fe60 |
0,3 |
not fully resolved, but most researchers adhere to this point of view.
Thus, the contribution of radioactive transformations to the energy of the Earth is very significant and, perhaps, has a dominant value.
However, there are estimates (for example, Sorokhtin, Ushakov, 2002), according to which the radiogenic source is of much lesser importance in the energy of the Earth E \u003d 0.43 * 1031 J.
Geothermal home heating
Geothermal heating scheme
First you need to understand the principles of obtaining thermal energy. They are based on the rise in temperature as you go deeper into the earth. At first glance, the increase in the degree of heating is insignificant. But thanks to the advent of new technologies, heating a house with the heat of the earth has become a reality.
The main condition for the organization of geothermal heating is a temperature of at least 6 ° C. This is typical for medium and deep layers of soil and reservoirs. The latter are highly dependent on the external temperature, so they are rarely used. How can you practically organize the heating of the house with the energy of the earth?
To do this, it is necessary to make 3 circuits filled with liquids with different technical characteristics:
- Outer. More often it circulates antifreeze.Its heating to a temperature not lower than 6 ° C occurs due to the energy of the earth;
- Heat pump. Without it, heating from the energy of the earth is impossible. The heat carrier from the external circuit transfers its energy to the refrigerant using a heat exchanger. Its evaporation temperature is less than 6°С. After that, it enters the compressor, where, after compression, the temperature rises to 70 ° C;
- Inner contour. According to a similar scheme, heat is transferred from the compressed refrigerant to water in the overcoming system. Thus, heating from the bowels of the earth occurs at minimal cost.
Despite the obvious advantages, it is rare to find such systems. This is due to the high costs of purchasing equipment and organizing an external heat intake circuit.
It is best to entrust the calculation of heating from the heat of the earth to professionals. The efficiency of the entire system will depend on the correctness of the calculations.
Cosmic and planetary energies.
Yin and Yang are two cosmic energies. An infinite number of annular vortex-like flows penetrate space, passing through our small planet. At the moment of passage through the body of the planet, the flow changes its sign to the opposite, that is, the YANG flow enters the Earth, and the YIN flow leaves (Fig. 1.2). It is even more correct to say that we are talking not about two, but about one energy. Passing through the body of the planet, the Yang flow gives it its active component and at the exit point, a kind of flow of lack of energy is formed. However, as mentioned above, we are accustomed to seeing everything in a double color, in the duality of concepts, and it is easier for us to operate with the concepts of YIN and YANG than with the concepts of the presence and absence of energy. Since there are infinitely many flows of different strengths, in one place there will be both YANG flows coming from above and YIN flows coming from below (Fig. 1.3).
And what does these cosmic flows have to do with an ordinary person? You have to be upset. At the level of development of awareness and energy at which we are, we do not interact with the original cosmic flows. Moreover. Without a total restructuring of the whole essence of a person, an attempt to open up to these streams will ruin a person with the same ease with which hydrochloric acid will corrode the plumbing system, if someone wants to pump it instead of water. There were not many people in the history of civilization who managed to merge with the cosmic stream, for the most part they are well known: Moses, Buddha, Christ, Muhammad, some other prophets and yogis.
If we are not yet striving to play the role of the Buddha, we are not in a hurry to open up to the original flows, in order to consciously move along the path of perfection, we need to figure out the mechanism for the formation of four planetary energies from the two original, yet inaccessible to us, YIN-YANG energies: “Air - Earth - Fire - Water ". The Yang "hot" stream, entering the atmosphere of the planet, interacts with the YIN "cold" stream rising from below and is converted into the energy of Air. In turn, the YIN-sky "cold" flow, rising up, mixes with the descending YANG-sky "hot" flow, generating the energy of the Earth. We will conditionally call the Air-Earth pair external (in relation to a person) energies.
The next level of transformation is directly related
with living beings inhabiting our planet. Air Energy
is converted by living beings into the energy of Fire, and the energy
Earth to Water. A pair of "Fire - Water" we will call internal (according to
relation to man) energies. If you line up the energies
principle hot - cold, then we get the following pattern:
cosmic YANG - Air - Fire and Water - Earth - cosmic
YIN (Fig. 1.4). As you can see, these streams differ only
the ratio of the hot - cold component, which can be displayed
on the monad (Fig. 1.5), where the outer
energy, and on the horizontal - internal.
Let's immediately agree that the planetary energies "Earth", "Water", "Fire" and "Air" and the earth we walk on, the water we drink, the fire we cook on, and the air we breathe are not same. There are no proper names for planetary energies in our language. We have to use analogies. To be precise, the above terms mean: energy is cold and inert like earth, cool and fluid like water, hot and active like fire, rarefied and volatile like air. For simplicity, when we write Air with a capital letter, we mean energy, when air, then the mixture of gases that we breathe.
All planetary energies are directly related to man. External energies in the human body have their own points of entry, internal energies have their own places of localization in the body. An approximate scheme of the functioning of energies is as follows. The energy of the Earth enters the body through the feet and transforms into Water in the pelvic region (Fig. 1.6). Let's call the area of Water energy transformation the “lower cauldron”, which occupies the distance from the perineum to the upper abdomen (Fig. 1.7).
Options for arranging geothermal heating
Methods for arranging the external contour
In order for the energy of the earth to heat the house to be used as much as possible, you need to choose the right circuit for the external circuit. In fact, any medium can be a source of thermal energy - underground, water or air.
But it is important to take into account seasonal changes in weather conditions, as discussed above.
Currently, two types of systems are common that are effectively used to heat a house due to the heat of the earth - horizontal and vertical. The key selection factor is the area of the land. The layout of the pipes for heating the house with the energy of the earth depends on this.
In addition, the following factors are taken into account:
- Soil composition. In rocky and loamy areas, it is difficult to make vertical shafts for laying highways;
- soil freezing level. He will determine the optimal depth of the pipes;
- Location of groundwater. The higher they are, the better for geothermal heating. In this case, the temperature will increase with depth, which is the optimal condition for heating from the energy of the earth.
You also need to know about the possibility of reverse energy transfer in the summer. Then the heating of a private house from the ground will not function, and the excess heat will pass from the house into the soil. All refrigeration systems work on the same principle. But for this you need to install additional equipment.
It is impossible to plan the installation of an external circuit away from home. This will increase heat losses in heating from the bowels of the earth.
Horizontal geothermal heating scheme
Horizontal arrangement of outer pipes
The most common way to install outdoor highways. It is convenient for ease of installation and the ability to relatively quickly replace faulty sections of the pipeline.
For installation according to this scheme, a collector system is used. For this, several contours are made, located at a minimum distance of 0.3 m from each other. They are connected using a collector, which supplies the coolant further to the heat pump. This will ensure the maximum energy supply to the heating from the heat of the earth.
However, there are some important things to keep in mind:
- Large yard area. For a house of about 150 m², it must be at least 300 m²;
- Pipes must be fixed to a depth below the freezing level of the soil;
- With the possible movement of soil during spring floods, the likelihood of displacement of highways increases.
The defining advantage of heating from the heat of the earth of a horizontal type is the possibility of self-arrangement. In most cases, this will not require the involvement of special equipment.
For maximum heat transfer, it is necessary to use pipes with a high thermal conductivity - thin-walled polymer pipes. But at the same time, you should consider ways to insulate heating pipes in the ground.
Vertical scheme of geothermal heating
Vertical geothermal system
This is a more time-consuming way of organizing heating of a private house from the ground. Pipelines are located vertically, in special wells
It is important to know that such a scheme is much more efficient than a vertical one.
Its main advantage is to increase the degree of water heating in the external circuit. Those. the deeper the pipes are located, the more the amount of earth's heat for heating the house will enter the system. Another factor is the small area of land. In some cases, the arrangement of the external geothermal heating circuit is carried out even before the construction of the house in the immediate vicinity of the foundation.
What difficulties can be encountered in obtaining earth energy for heating a house according to this scheme?
- Quantitative to quality. For a vertical arrangement, the length of the highways is much higher. It is compensated by higher soil temperature. To do this, you need to make wells up to 50 m deep, which is a laborious job;
- Soil composition. For rocky soil, it is necessary to use special drilling machines. In loam, to prevent shedding of the well, a protective sheath made of reinforced concrete or thick-walled plastic is mounted;
- In the event of malfunctions or loss of tightness, the repair process becomes more complicated. In this case, long-term failures in the operation of heating the house for the thermal energy of the earth are possible.
But despite the high initial costs and the complexity of installation, the vertical arrangement of the highways is optimal. Experts advise using just such an installation scheme.
For the circulation of the coolant in the outer circuit in a vertical system, powerful circulation pumps are needed.
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Internal energy of the Earth
Since the magnetic field is generated in the planet's inner core, the energy that is required to maintain it is also an integral part of the Earth's total internal energy. There is a great deal of uncertainty in estimating this energy. If at present the value of the magnetic field of the outer core is confidently determined, then to calculate the energy of the magnetic field on the surface, the value of the relative magnetic permeability μ / μo is necessary, and its value can vary from 1 (when magnetic field lines pass outside the globe) to 100 (for Earth's inner metallic core). Therefore, if different values of μ/μo are used, then the calculated energy of the magnetic field can be in the range from 1.7 to 170 TW. We will conditionally take the average value of 86 TW. In this case, the total energy of the Earth is equal to the sum of the energy of heat radiation through the surface (45 TW) and the energy required to maintain the magnetic field (86 TW), that is, 131 TW.
Recently, with the participation of 15 universities in the USA, Western Europe and Japan, fundamental work was carried out on experimental measurement of the magnitude of the heat flux from the Earth's interior to the atmosphere caused by the decay of radioactive isotopes. It was found that the radioactive decay of 238U and 232Th makes a total contribution of 20 TW to the planet's heat flux. The neutrinos emitted due to the 40K decay were below the sensitivity limit of this experiment, but they are known to contribute no more than 4 TW. The magnitude of radioactive decay was determined from accurate measurements of the geoneutrino flux using the Kamioka Liquid Scintillator Antineutrino Detector (Japan) and, according to the available data from the Borexino detector (Italy), totals 24 TW.
Anderson's fundamental monograph "New Theory of the Earth" shows that only approximately 10 TW of energy can come from non-radioactive sources, such as cooling and differentiation of the crust, compression (compaction) of the mantle, tidal friction, etc.
It turns out a significant discrepancy: 34 TW are generated inside the Earth, and 131 TW are consumed.
A significant imbalance (97 TW) raises serious doubts that the primary reserve is able to provide the necessary additional energy of the Earth. It is more reasonable to assume the existence of another source that allows our planet to be on a par with other planets in terms of mass-luminosity ratio.
Mass-luminosity diagram for planets.
Solar panels
A frame solar module is usually made in the form of a panel, which is enclosed in an anodized aluminum frame. The light-receiving surface is protected by tempered glass. Monocrystalline silicon is used as photoconverters.
A solar battery (module) consists of several sections of solar cells that convert light energy into electricity. Each section is protected from environmental influences by polymeric films and provided with a rigid substrate, which provides resistance to mechanical stress. All sections are interconnected by flexible elements, forming a panel that can be folded for ease of transportation and storage.
Rice. 4. Solar panels
Rice. 5.Solar panels on the roof of the house
There are also small-sized devices that save energy received from the network. For example, a portable solar charger. Designed for recharging mobile phones, GPS, PDAs, MP-3, and CD players, radio stations, satellite phones and other electronic devices with a nominal battery voltage of 4.5-19 volts. Amorphous silicon is used as photoconverters. This device frees climbers, hunters, fishermen, tourists, rescue services and other users from using stationary and bulky energy sources. It is made in the form of a folding panel and works like a small power plant, turning solar energy into electrical energy. Solar cells are covered with strong and durable polymer material, easy and safe to use. They do not contain fragile components: glass or crystalline silicon and can be operated at ambient temperatures from -30 to +50 C.
Rice. 6. External battery Xtreme 12000 mAh with solar cells
The use of solar energy is not limited to the production of electrical energy. A system based on solar vacuum collectors allows you to receive thermal energy, namely, to heat water to a predetermined temperature, by absorbing solar radiation, converting it into heat, accumulating and transferring it to the consumer.
The system consists of two main elements:
– outdoor unit – solar vacuum collectors;
– indoor unit – heat exchanger tank.
Rice. 7. Flat solar collector MFK 001 from Meibes
The solar vacuum collector ensures the collection of solar radiation in any weather, regardless of the external temperature. The energy absorption coefficient of such collectors, with a vacuum degree of 10-5¸ 10-6, is 98%. Solar panels are installed directly on the roof of buildings in such a way as to make the most efficient use of the roof area for energy collection. Collectors are mounted at any angle, from 0 to 90 degrees. The service life of vacuum collectors is at least 15 years.
A heat exchanger tank is an automated system for converting, maintaining and storing heat received from solar energy, as well as from other energy sources (for example, a traditional heater running on electricity, gas or diesel fuel), which insure the system in case of insufficient solar radiation. The water heated in this way flows from the heat exchanger of the indoor unit to the radiators of the heating system, and the water from the tank is used for hot water supply.
Rice. 8. Reservoir heat exchanger
The microprocessor control unit is designed to control the temperature in the solar collector and the heat exchanger tank, as well as to select, depending on the magnitude of these temperatures, the optimal mode of operation of the system during the day. At the same time, the controller regulates the flow of the coolant through the heat exchanger, determines the direction of heat supply (for DHW or heating), and controls the operation of the base heater.
At night, the automation of the system provides the minimum necessary attraction of additional energy to maintain the set temperature inside the room. The system has a low inertia, a quick exit to the operating mode and allows for an average annual energy saving of up to 50%.
Underwater electroconverter of gravitational energy
As a result of the modernization of the well-known water-lifting device called "hydroram" (Figure 14), Russian scientists invented another water-lifting device, which is a new converter of the potential energy of water, which, in fact, is a new source of inexhaustible environmentally friendly and powerful energy.
When fully immersed in water to a sufficient depth, it transforms the deep static water pressure into a jet of water pulsating in time with a pressure higher than at a given depth. Water under deep pressure itself flows into the water intake of the transducer, and on the other hand flows out of the outlet with even greater pressure. This converter can be used as a deep-well pump, as a pulsating water jet and as a source of electric current, if a hydraulic turbine with an electric generator is connected to the outlet. At the same time, its feature is that it does not require a single gram of the usual fuel or any additional energy supplied.
Rice. 14. Hydroram
The converter described above is equally suitable for operation in fresh and sea water, in still and moving water, in lakes and pools, in artificial reservoirs. With a single start, it works with constant parameters, regardless of the time of day and climatic conditions, without stopping for many years.
When using this converter in combination with a hydro turbine and a conventional electric generator, that is, when used in a generating electric power industry, at a depth of immersion in water of 15 meters from one square meter of the water intake area, it is possible to obtain an output electric power of ~ 0.75 MW, and at a depth of 300 meters - output electrical power ~ 30 MW. Studies show that the possible electrical power increases in proportion to the depth of the immersion of the transducer in water. This allows, with a sufficiently large area of the water intake hole, or with the simultaneous use of several installations combined into one unit, to obtain almost any required output power of electric current. At the same time, a power plant of any capacity will require only an underground or ground reservoir, once completely filled with water, having an area of \u200b\u200bno more than 8m² / MW and a water height of at least 15 meters. Thus, a fundamentally new reservoir power plant can be created that can replace any thermal and nuclear power plant. Power generator Huter DY6500L.
It is also possible to configure the converter in such a way that when water passes through it, it can heat it without energy loss and produce electricity. In particular, for example, a vertical single module with a power of 500 kW located at a depth of 20 meters with certain design initial parameters, and without measures to cool the surrounding water, can already after 4 hours of operation heat the surrounding water in the corresponding underground or ground tank from a temperature of +15 ° C to + 75 °C. Thus, it can be effectively used for space heating.
Wind turbines
Wind turbines are installations designed to generate electricity from the wind flow. They can be used in remote and isolated places, in various climatic regions with favorable wind conditions, where there is no centralized power supply or its supply is irregular. For example, a wind power plant can provide consumers with electricity to power household appliances, lighting lamps, household and special communication devices, television and radio communication lines, satellite and cellular computer communication devices, mobile and stationary points of navigation and meteorological posts, radio stations, lighthouses and radio beacons, medical and scientific equipment, water pumps, to ensure battery charging, etc. In the absence of wind, the power supply of consumers and their performance is provided by a storage battery. Connecting the inverter to the control unit allows you to convert 24 V DC to 220 V AC.
Rice. 9.Wind turbines A class
The wind power plant is an autonomous, reliable, automatic installation that does not require on-duty personnel during operation and is designed for autonomous power supply to individual consumers (summer residents, gardeners, shift workers, hunters, farmers, fishermen, geological expeditions), as well as navigation, meteorological, radio relay and other posts in providing uninterrupted power in the field.
Rice. 10. Scheme of wind turbines
geothermal energy earth energy
Geothermal energy sources can be of two types. The first type is underground pools of natural heat carriers - hot water (hydrothermal springs), or steam (steam thermal springs), or a steam-water mixture.
Rice. 15. The first type of geothermal energy sources - underground pools of natural heat carriers
In essence, the first type of sources are directly ready for use "underground boilers", from where water or steam can be extracted using ordinary boreholes.
The second type is the heat of hot rocks. By pumping water into such horizons, you can get steam or hot water at the outlet for further use for energy purposes. Geothermal energy is used to generate electricity, heat housing, greenhouses, etc. Dry steam, superheated water, or any coolant with a low boiling point (ammonia, freon, etc.) is used as a coolant.
Rice. 16. The second type of geothermal energy sources
Presentation on the topic USE OF THE ENERGY OF THE SUN ON THE EARTH. The sun is the source of life for everything on earth. The source of life The sun The sun is the main source of energy. transcript
1
USING SOLAR ENERGY ON EARTH
2
The sun is the source of life for everything on earth the source of life The sun The sun is the main source of energy on earth and the root cause that created most of the other energy resources of our planet, such as reserves of coal, oil, gas, wind energy and falling water, electrical energy, etc. .d. The energy of the Sun, which is mainly released in the form of radiant energy, is so great that it is difficult even to imagine.
3
In New York, even garbage collectors use solar energy. Here, in two districts, intelligent solar garbage containers - BigBelly - have been operating for a year and a half. Using the energy of light, converted into electricity by silicon photocells, they compact the contents.
4
There are many sources of energy on Earth, but judging by how rapidly energy prices are rising, they are still not enough. Many experts believe that by 2020, three and a half times more fuel will be needed.
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The latest technology for depositing a metal oxide film on a glass substrate makes it possible to create large thin-film solar modules. In America, only one project - the construction of a solar power plant in the Negev desert (Israel) - has been allocated 100 million dollars.
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An experimental area "Sun City" was created near the Dutch town of Herhyugovard. The roofs of the houses here are covered with solar panels. The house in the picture generates up to 25 kW. The total capacity of the "City of the Sun" is planned to be increased to 5 MW. Such houses become autonomous from the system.
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The sun can also be used as a source of energy for vehicles. In Australia, for 19 years, the annual solar electric car race has been held on the track between the cities of Darwin and Adelaide (3000 km). In 1990, Sanyo built a solar-powered aircraft.
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Under the solar roof of the WORLD (energy stations and "solar houses") A focused microwave beam can transmit the energy collected by solar panels to the Earth, or it can supply spacecraft with it. Unlike sunlight, this microwave beam will lose no more than 2% of energy during the “breakdown” of the atmosphere. The idea was recently resurrected by David Criswell.
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Under the solar roof of the WORLD (power stations and "solar houses") NSTTF American solar installation for thermal testing and experiments in the field of energy.One of the old ways to collect solar energy is SES, invented by Bernard Dubos. He proposed to build extensive glass canopies with a tall chimney in the deserts.
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Under the Solar Roof of the WORLD (Power Plants and Solar Homes), the TransOption Association, an association of New Jersey public and private transportation companies, organizes an annual solar-powered model car race for school teams.
Energy of the World Ocean
The energy of the World Ocean is represented by the energy of the surf, waves, tides, the difference in water temperatures of the surface and deep layers of the ocean, currents, etc.
Tidal waves carry a huge energy potential - 3 billion kW. The interest of specialists in tidal fluctuations in the ocean level near the coasts of the continents is growing. Tidal energy has been used by man for centuries to power mills and sawmills. But with the advent of the steam engine, it was forgotten until the mid-60s, when the first PES were launched in France and the USSR. Tidal energy is constant. Due to this, the amount of electricity generated at tidal power plants (TPPs) can always be known in advance, unlike conventional hydroelectric power plants, where the amount of energy received depends on the regime of the river, which is associated not only with the climatic characteristics of the territory through which it flows, but also with weather conditions.
Rice. 17. Model of devices for processing tidal energy into electricity
It is believed that the Atlantic Ocean has the largest reserves of tidal energy. There are also large reserves of tidal energy in the Pacific and Arctic oceans. When constructing PES, it is necessary to comprehensively assess their environmental impact on the environment, since it is quite large. In the areas of construction of large TPPs, the height of the tides changes significantly, the water balance in the water area of the station is disturbed, which can seriously affect the fisheries, breeding oysters, mussels, etc.
The energy resources of the World Ocean also include the energy of waves and the temperature gradient. The energy of wind waves is estimated in total at 2.7 billion kW per year.
Quasi-nuclear fusion reactions
The pressure in the Earth's inner core reaches about 3.6*10^6 bar. In places of antinodes of longitudinal waves of earthquakes in local areas, the pressure rises to 10 ^ 8 bar, at a temperature of the order of 6000 K, reaching a level at which tunneling and the occurrence of thermonuclear reactions are possible, as shown in the works of Zel'dovich and Wang Hong-chang.
In places where local foci of thermonuclear reactions occur, the temperature should rise sharply. In this case, the decomposition of hydrides occurs, the transition of hydrogen from the hydride ion form to the proton gas and, accordingly, the release of a large amount of hydrogen. At the same time, the volume of the substance increases significantly without changing the mass (550 cubic centimeters of hydrogen are contained in one cubic centimeter of iron hydride). Which, in turn, leads to an increase in the volume of the substance of the planet's core, with a slight change in mass. In other words, the hydrides of the inner core decompose into the metal of the outer core and hydrogen, which should also lead to an increase in the volume of the Earth. It should be noted that a thermonuclear chain reaction cannot occur, because. excess heat escapes with the coolant hydrogen into the outer spheres (deep fluids), and the temperature drops.
The inner core of the Earth, as it were, “boils” very slowly like tar, i.e., when elastic waves are added, local synthesis reactions occur sporadically in different places of the inner core. Let's call this process "quasi-thermonuclear".
The energy balance of the decomposition of hydrides in the core can be represented as follows:
∂QT + m = p ∂V + ∂QH, where m is the chemical potential of hydrogen in hydrides, ∂QТ is the thermonuclear heat of sporadic hydrogen fusion reactions in the nucleus p decompaction zone, ∂QH is the heat carried away from the decompaction zone by proton gas (hydrogen nuclei) as a coolant, so the temperature on the surface of a solid core must be higher than inside.
